Virtual Environments and Gender-Based Violence
Special Reference to the Metaverse and ChatGPT
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.62161/revvisual.v17.5878Keywords:
Virtual spaces, Metaverse, ChatGPT, Gender violence, Fundamental Rights, Democracy, Public PoliciesAbstract
Technologies such as the Metaverse or ChatGPT have incorporated gender-based violence into virtual spaces, reproduction of traditional sexist violence. Through a bibliographic review in the main scientific databases, their favorable conditions, characteristics, types of violence, examples of specific situations, scarce public policies and the very little interest on the part of the scientific community to address these issues, despite their radical importance, and the demand for international consultation to provide frameworks and protocols that can at least mitigate them due to the ubiquity of the Internet and the relocation of these companies.
Downloads
Global Statistics ℹ️
|
6
Views
|
1
Downloads
|
|
7
Total
|
|
References
Afrouz, R., & Vassos, S. (2024). Adolescents’ experiences of cyber-dating abuse and the pattern of abuse through technology, a scoping review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 15248380241227457. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380241227457
Alonso-Ruido, P., Rodríguez-Castro, Y., Martínez-Román, R., & Lameiras-Fernández, M. (2024). Las violencias digitales y el uso del móvil en parejas adolescentes: Aloma. 42(1), 49-57. https://doi.org/10.51698/aloma.2024.42.1.49-57
Alonso-Ruido, P., Blanco, I. E., Portela, C. V., & Losada, A. S. (2024). Sextorsión: una estrategia de violencia sexual online en el estudiantado universitario. Pedagogía social. 45. 29-43. https://doi.org/10.7179/PSRI_2024.45.02
Arguedas, A.R., & Simon, F.M. (2023). Automating democracy. University of Oxford. https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:0965ad50-b55b-4591-8c3b-7be0c587d5e7
Bailey, J.A. (2023). An Exploration of Queer Women's Relationship with the Body and Physical Activity. https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/etd/9603
Basu, T. (2021). El nuevo riesgo del metaverso: la dismorfia y la autopercepción corporal. MIT Technology Review. https://bit.ly/3oqKlvj
Breazu, P., & Katsos, N. (2024). ChatGPT-4 as a journalist. Discourse & Society, 35(6), 687-707. https://doi.org/10.1177/09579265241251479
BBC (2022) Sulli Deals: police arrest man for making app to auction Muslim women. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-59933029
Bravo-Villasante, M. Á. (2024). Machosfera, discursos de odio y algoritmización de la esfera pública. Teknokultura. 21(1), 69-77. https://doi.org/10.5209/tekn.90501
Chemaly S (2019) Foreword. In: Ging, D., & Siapera, E. (Eds.). (2019). Gender hate online: Understanding the new anti-feminism. Springer.
Chowdhury, R. (2024). De todas formas, tu opinión no importa. UNESCO. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000389784
Das, S. (2024). Devotion of dissent: contesting Hindutva in Bhakti tradition. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 59(6), 2027-2045. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909623115315
Davidenko, M., & Utkina, V. (2024). The Conservative Turn in Post-Soviet Russia. Europe-Asia Studies, 76(2), 135-148. https://doi.org/10.1080/09668136.2024.2325774
Del Prete, A., & Redón Pantoja, S. (2022). La Invisibilización de la Violencia de Género en las Redes Sociales. Multidisciplinary Journal of Gender Studies, 11(2), 124–143. https://doi.org/10.17583/generos.8234
Della Torre, B. (2023). The cross and the Pink shotgun: apocalypse and the antifeminist movement in Bolsonaro’s Brazil. Berlin: De Gruyter, 187-208. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110787009-011
Dewanty, I. A. B. C., & Saryono, D. (2024). Verbal violence against women on TikTok: A feminist linguistic study. Litera, 23(2), 247-260. 10.21831/ltr.v23i2.72475
Díaz-Aguado, M. J. (2022). Adolescencia, sexismo y violencia contra las mujeres en España. Revista de Estudios de Juventud, 125, 11-32. https://goo.su/dlJoc
Egan, F. (2024). Teaching gender in and through uncertainty. Journal of Sociology, 60(1), 248-264. https://doi.org/10.1177/14407833221135939
Fernández, E.O. (2025). La Manosfera y su evolución en la dinámica sociopolítica. European Public & Social Innovation Review, 10, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.31637/epsir-2025-536
Ferrara, E. (2023). Should chatgpt be biased? challenges and risks of bias in large language models. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2304.03738
Ferreras, S. P., Castillo, N. G., & Hänninen, L. I. (2024). Comunicación digital para el cambio social en España: Campañas Contra la Trata de Personas en la Red Social X. Visual Review, 16(3), 333-352. https://doi.org/10.62161/revvisual.v16.5270
Frezzotti, Y., & Tarullo, R. (2024). The digital dissemination of intimate content as a form of gender violence. Revista Prisma Social, (47), 219–239. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5704-0471
Fodor, E. (2022). More babies for the state: the “carefare” regime of anti-liberal Hungary. New Labor Forum, 31 (1), 34-41. Sage CA: Los Angeles. https://doi.org/10.1177/10957960211062460
García-Mingo, E., Díaz Fernández, S. & Tomás-Forte, S. (2022). (Re) configurando el imaginario sobre la violencia sexual desde el antifeminismo. Política y Sociedad, 59(1), 1-15. https://dx.doi.org/10.5209/poso.80369
Gatica, P. A. (2018). Cartografías de la sociedad red, DHQ: Digital Humanities Quarterly, Vol. 12, nº1: https://dhq-static.digitalhumanities.org/pdf/000347.pdf
Giosan, C., Popoviciu, C. M., Zhamaliyeva, S., Zaborot, I., & Deac, G. (2024). Evaluating the efficacy of support groups in the metaverse for Ukrainian refugees. Trials, 25(1), 697. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-024-08543-6
González Véliz, C., & Cuzcano Chavez, X. (2024). Desafíos y dimensiones de la desinformación en ALAC: deepfakes y la urgencia de proteger los derechos de las mujeres. Espacio I+D, Innovación más Desarrollo, 13(36). https://doi.org/10.31644/IMASD.36.2024.a19
Indelicato, M. E., & Magalhaes Lopes, M. (2024). Understanding populist far-right anti-immigration and anti-gender stances beyond the paradigm of gender as ‘a symbolic glue’. European Journal of Women's Studies, 31(1), 6-20. https://doi.org/10.1177/13505068241230819
International Olimpic Committee (OIC) (2023). IOC announces USD 10 million fund to strengthen safe sport and creates working group to coordinate Olympic Mov. safeguarding efforts. bit.ly/4hhuVTP
Jain, I., & Banerjee, T. N. (2024). Dossier—Negotiating Urban Spaces. Theatre Research International, 49(1), 89-94. https://doi.org/10.1017/S030788332300038X
Jiménez, F. (2019). Me casé con un holograma. BBC News. https://bbc.in/2YUdfFs
Kang, J.S. (2024). A Study on the Misogyny and Violence through the Movie “Polytechnic”. Journ. of East-West Comp. Lit., 67. 163-181. bit.ly/3CmCLN3
Kavanagh, E., Litchfield, C., & Osborne, J. (2019). Sporting women and social media. International Journal of Sport Communication, 12(4), 552-572. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsc.2019-0079
Kavanagh, E. J., Litchfield, C., & Osborne, J. (2023). Social media and athlete welfare. International Journal of Sport Communication, 16(3), 274-281. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsc.2023-0116
Kaul, N. (2021). The misogyny of authoritarians in contemporary democracies. International Studies Review, 23(4), 1619-1645. https://doi.org/10.1093/isr/viab028
Kitching, N., Bowes, A., and MacLaren, M. (2020). Write when it hurts. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 13(1), 77-93. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2020.1836507
FIFA, (2022). FIFA Threat Matrix Report. bit.ly/40JrfTZ
FIFPRO (2022). FIFA and FIFPRO join forces to combat social media hate speech. bit.ly/42Bn2UQ
Lacalle Zalduendo, M.R., Gómez Morales, B.M., & Vicent Ibáñez, M. (2023). Misogyny and the construction of toxic masculinity in the Spanish Manosphere. El profesional de la información, 32(2). https://doi.org/10.3145/EPI.2023.MAR.15
Litchfield, C., Kavanagh, E., Osborne, J., & Jones, I. (2018). Social media and the politics of gender, race and identity: The case of Serena Williams. European Journal for Sport and Society, 15(2), 154-170. https://doi.org/10.1080/16138171.2018.1452870
MacArthur, C., Kukshinov, E., Harley, D., Pawar, T., Modi, N. y Nacke, LE (2024). Disparidades experienciales en la realidad virtual social. Frontiers in Virtual Reality , 5 , 1351794. https://doi.org/10.3389/frvir.2024.1351794
MacPherson, E., & Kerr, G. (2021). Sport fans’ perspectives of public shaming of professional athletes on social media. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 13(1), 146-165. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2020.1836505
Macchioni, E., & Santoni, C. (2022). The youth on-line life: Risks, violence and support networks. Intern. Review of Sociology, 32(3), 463-482. https://doi.org/10.1080/03906701.2022.2133409
Montesinos García, A. (2024). Inteligencia Artificial en la justicia con perspectiva de género: amenazas y oportunidades. Actualidad Jurídica Iberoamericana, 21, 566-597. bit.ly/42CyOhS
Murillo Lafuente, I. E. (2023). Spaces of Anti-Ableist, Feminist Resistance. Space and Culture, 26(3), 433-450. https://doi.org/10.1177/12063312231181529
Naaz, H. (2023). The anti-feminist narrative of the Hindu right in India. Global Perspectives on Anti-Feminism. Edinburgh University Press. bit.ly/3CzuKV2
Naezer, M. & Van Oosterhout, L. (2021). Only sluts love sexting: youth, sexual norms and non-consensual sharing of digital sexual images. Journal of Gender Studies, 30(1), 79-90. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2020.1799767
Ndaka, F. M. (2023). Wakurugenzi Networks: Reframing Kenyan Vernaculars of Gender/Gendering in Abel Mutua’s YouTube Channel. Eastern African Literary and Cultural Studies, 9(1), 19-40. https://doi.org/10.1080/23277408.2022.2106609
Pabón Cardona N., Acevedo-Merlano A., Flórez-Benavides D. y González-Güeto J. (2023). Memes feministas e interacciones en Facebook. Teknokultura. 20(2), 217-228. https://doi.org/10.5209/tekn.82664
Page, J. M., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron,I., Hoffmann, T. C.,Mulrow, C. D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J. M., Akl, E. A., Brennan, S. E., Chou, R., Glanville,J., Grimshaw, J. M., Hróbjartsson, A., Lalu, M. M., Li, T., Loder, E. W., Mayo-Wilson, E., McDonald, S., McGuinness, L. A., Stewart, L. A., Thomas, J., Tricco, A. C., Welch, V. A., Whiting,P. y Moher, D. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, 71, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n7
Pande, M. (2022). Gendered analysis of Hindutva imaginaries. Journal of Modern European History, 20(3), 407-422. https://doi.org/10.1177/16118944221110725
Patwardhan, A. (2023). Artificial intelligence. Journal of Primary Care & Community Health, 14. https://doi.org/10.1177/21501319231179559
Park, J., & Ogle, J. P. (2021). How virtual avatar experience interplays with self-concepts: the use of anthropometric 3D body models in the visual stimulation process. Fashion and Textiles, 8(1), 28. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40691-021-00257-6
Phipps, C. (2023). You belong in the kitchen: Social media, virtual manhood acts, and women strength sport athletes experiences of gender-based violence online. Feminist Media Studies, 23(8). https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2022.2158898
Prisma (2020). Checklist. https://prisma.shinyapps.io/checklist/
Pozos Pérez, K.V. (2023). Resiliencia juvenil ante la hiperconectividad durante la pandemia en Cataluña. VISUAL REVIEW. https://doi.org/10.37467/revvisual.v10.4616
Qushua, N., Gillespie, A., Ramazan, D., Joergensen, S., Erskine, D., Poulton, C., Stark, L., & Seff, I. (2023). Danger Zone or Newfound Freedoms. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(4). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20043400
Ramiro, B.E., & López, R.M. (2023). Nuevas formas de violencia y discursos de odio hacia las mujeres en juegos online multijugador. Methaodos. https://doi.org/10.17502/mrcs.v11i1.652
Ricoy-Casas, R.M. (2021). Sesgos y algoritmos: inteligencia de género, en: Bonorino, P.R.; Valcárcel, P.; Fernández, R. (Coords.). Nuevas normatividades: inteligencia artificial, derecho y género, Thomson Reuters Aranzadi.
Ricoy-Casas, R.M. (2022a). Use of Technological Means and Personal Data in Electoral Activities: Persuasive Voters. In: Communication and Smart Technologies 259. 227-237. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5792-4_23
Ricoy-Casas, R.M. (2022b). Hologramas y Avatares para la persuasión política. Visual Review, https://doi.org/10.37467/revvisual.v9.3547
Ricoy-Casas, R. M. (2023). The Metaverse as a New Space for Political Communication. Smart Innov., Systems and Techn., 318, Springer. 325-334. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6347-6_29
Ricoy-Casas, R. M., Fernández-González, R. (2024a). La violencia de género a través de las nuevas tecnologías. Nueva regulación de la Unión Europea. Iglesias Canle, I.C. (Dir.). Interseccionalidad de género, discapacidad y otros ejes de desigualdad. Tirant lo Blanch.
Ricoy-Casas, R. M., Fernández-González, R. (2024b). Discapacidad e inteligencia artificial. Iglesias Canle, I.C. (Dir.). Interseccionalidad de género, discapacidad y otros ejes de desigualdad. Tirant lo Blanch.
Ricoy-Casas, R.M. & González, R.F. (2024c). ChatGPT y discurso político. Revisión documental. European Public & Social Innovation Review, 9, 1-24. https://doi.org/10.31637/epsir-2024-841
Ricoy-Casas, R. M., Fernández-González, R. y Santos-Garrido, M. (2025). Alumnado subrepresentado e inteligencia artificial. European Public & Social Innovation Review, 10. 01-22. https://doi.org/10.31637/epsir-2025-843
Rigotti, C., & Malgieri, G. (2023). Human vulnerability in the metaverse. https://hdl.handle.net/1887/3677016
Rivas-Rivero, E., & Bonilla-Algovia, E. (2024). Cyber dating abuse in university students from Spain and Latin America. Behavioral Psychology, 32(1), 145-164. https://doi.org/10.51668/bp.8324107n
Rubio Martín, M. J. & Gordo López, Á. (2021). La perspectiva tecnosocial feminista como antídoto para la misoginia online. Revista Española de Sociología, 30(3), a64. https://doi.org/10.22325/fes/res.2021.64
Sánchez-Arjona, M.L. (2023). La ciberviolencia de género: nuevas formas de victimización. In El proceso penal ante una nueva realidad tecnológica europea. 413-436. Thomson Reuters Aranzadi. https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=8857607
Sánchez-Ramos, M. (2022). Ciberviolencias de género contra mujeres y niñas. Debate feminista, 64, 247-252. https://doi.org/10.22201/cieg.2594066xe.2022.64.2360
Schulenberg, K., Freeman, G., Li, L., & Barwulor, C. (2023). Creepy Towards My Avatar Body, Creepy Towards My Body". Proceedings of the ACM on humancomputer interaction, (CSCW2). https://doi.org/10.1145/3610027
Sen, R., & Jha, S. (2024). Women Under Hindutva: Misogynist Memes, Mock-Auction and Doxing, Deepfake-Pornification and Rape Threats in Digital Space. Journal of Asian and African Studies. https://doi.org/10.1177/00219096241257686
Shome, A. (2022). Gendered Experiences in the Virtual World: Online Harassment of Women and LGBTQI. In: Mahajan, V., Chowdhury, A., Kaushal, U., Jariwala, N., Bong, S.A. (eds) Gender Equity: Challenges and Opportunities. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0460-8_7
Schulenberg, K., Freeman, G., Li, L., & Barwulor, C. (2023). Creepy Towards My Avatar Body, Creepy Towards My Body. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 7(CSCW2), 1-29. https://doi.org/10.1145/3610027
Silva, S. M. P. D., Araujo, A. C. G. D. D., & Andrade, C. B. (2024). “That cost my health”: sexual harassment in higher education based on an analysis of# MeuProfessorAbusador. Interface-Comunicação, Saúde, Educação, 28.. https://doi.org/10.1590/interface.240182
Sosa Valcarcel, A., Galarza Fernández, E., & Ranea-Triviño, B. (2024). Perceptions, experiences, and positions on gender violence in social media. Comunicación y sociedad, 21. https://doi.org/10.32870/cys.v2024.8676
Stephens, M. T. (2022). Black Feminist Organizing and Caribbean Cyberfeminisms in Puerto Rico. Open Cultural Studies, 6(1), 147-166. https://doi.org/10.1515/culture-2022-0149
Taha-Thomure, R., Milne, A. S., Kavanagh, E. J., & Stirling, A. E. (2022). Gender-based violence against trans individuals: A netnography of Mary Gregory’s experience in powerlifting. Frontiers in psychology, 13, 854452. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.854452
The Times of India (2024) Modi announces rs 100 price cut on LPG cylinder as women’s day gift. bit.ly/40X7YzE
Toccalino, D., Jonsa, S., Yakubovich, A. R., Davies, A., Kosa, S. D., Kelly, C. E., ... & Du Mont, J. (2025). Building knowledge to improve access to inclusive and equitable care for trans and gender-diverse survivors of sexual assault and intimate partner violence: a qualitative research protocol. BMJ open, 15(1), e090388. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2024-090388
Unal, D., Hakola, O., Salminen, J., Turpeinen, J., & Winberg, O. (2021). The masculinist restoration project in the rhetoric of anti-gender movements. 67. Lexington Books.
Venditto, B., Set, B., & Amaambo, R. N. (2022). Sexualization and dehumanization of women by social media users in Namibia. Sexes, 3(3), 445-462. https://doi.org/10.3390/sexes3030033
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Authors retain copyright and transfer to the journal the right of first publication and publishing rights

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Those authors who publish in this journal accept the following terms:
-
Authors retain copyright.
-
Authors transfer to the journal the right of first publication. The journal also owns the publishing rights.
-
All published contents are governed by an Attribution-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Access the informative version and legal text of the license. By virtue of this, third parties are allowed to use what is published as long as they mention the authorship of the work and the first publication in this journal. If you transform the material, you may not distribute the modified work. -
Authors may make other independent and additional contractual arrangements for non-exclusive distribution of the version of the article published in this journal (e.g., inclusion in an institutional repository or publication in a book) as long as they clearly indicate that the work was first published in this journal.
- Authors are allowed and recommended to publish their work on the Internet (for example on institutional and personal websites), following the publication of, and referencing the journal, as this could lead to constructive exchanges and a more extensive and quick circulation of published works (see The Effect of Open Access).







